IFSM 2
Project Description
Apply decision-making frameworks to IT-related ethical issues
There are several ethical theories described in Module 1: Ethical Theories. Module 2: Methods of Ethical Decision Making, describes frameworks for ethical analysis. For this paper, use the Reynolds Seven-Step approach to address the following:
· Describe a current IT-related ethical issue; and define a problem statement
· Analyze your problem using a decision-making framework chosen from Module 2.
· Discuss the applicable ethical theory from Module 1 that supports your decision.
· Prepare a minimum 3- 5 page, double-spaced paper.
· Use APA style and format. Provide appropriate American Psychological Association (APA) reference citations for all sources. In addition to critical thinking and analysis skills, your paper should reflect appropriate grammar and spelling, good organization, and proper business-writing style.
Each of Reynolds seven steps must be a major heading in your paper.
Here are some suggested issues–
1. Workplace Issue.
2. Privacy on the Web. What is happening now in terms of privacy on the Web? Think about recent abuses and improvements. Describe and evaluate Web site policies, technical and privacy policy protections, and current proposals for government regulations.
3. Personal Data Privacy Regulations in Other Countries. Report on personal data privacy regulations, Web site privacy policies, and governmental/law enforcement about access to personal data in one or more countries; e.g., the European Union. This is especially relevant as our global economic community expands and we are more dependent on non-US clients for e-Business over the Internet. (Note: new proposed regulations are under review in Europe.)
4. Spam. Describe new technical solutions and the current state of regulation. Consider the relevance of freedom of speech. Discuss the roles of technical and legislative solutions.
5. Computer-Based Crimes. Discuss the most prevalent types of computer crimes, such as Phishing. Analyze why and how these can occur. Describe protective measures that might assist in preventing or mitigating these types of crimes.
6. Government surveillance of the Internet. The 9/11 attacks on the US in 2001 brought many new laws and permits more government surveillance of the Internet. Is this a good idea? Many issues are cropping up daily in our current periodicals!
7. The Digital Divide. Does it exist; what does it look like; and, what are the ethical considerations and impact?
8. Privacy in the Workplace: Monitoring Employee Web and E-Mail Use. What are current opinions concerning monitoring employee computer use. What policies are employers using? Should this be authorized or not? Policies are changing even now!
9. Medical Privacy. Who owns your medical history? What is the state of current legislation to protect your health information? Is it sufficient? There are new incentives with federal stimulus financing for health care organizations to develop and implement digital health records.
10. Software piracy. How many of you have ever made an unauthorized copy of software, downloaded software or music (free or for a fee), or used copyrighted information without giving proper credit or asking permission? Was this illegal or just wrong? How is this being addressed?
11. Predictions for Ethical IT Dilemma in 2020. What is your biggest worry or your prediction for ethical concerns of the future related to information technology?
12. Consumer Profiling. With every purchase you make, every Web site you visit, your preferences are being profiled. What is your opinion regarding the legal authority of these organizations to collect and aggregate this data?
13. Biometrics & Ethics. Your fingerprint, retinal-vessel image, and DNA map can exist entirely as a digital image in a computer, on a network, or in the info-sphere. What new and old ethical problems must we address?
14. Ethical Corporations. Can corporations be ethical? Why or why not?
15. Social Networking. What are some of the ethical issues surrounding using new social networks? How are these now considered for business use? What are business social communities? Are new/different protections and security needed for these networks?
16. Gambling in Cyberspace. Is it legal? Are there national regulations and/or licensing? What are the oversight and enforcement requirements? Are there international implications? What are the social and public health issues?
17. Pornography in Cyberspace For example, the U.S. Supreme Court ruling protecting as free speech computer-generated child pornography
18. Medicine and Psychiatry in Cyberspace. Some considerations include: privacy issues; security; third-party record-keeping; electronic medical records; access to information, even by the patient (patient rights); access to information by outsiders without patient knowledge; authority to transfer and/or share information. Are there any policies proposed by professional organizations?
19. Counterterrorism and Information Systems Your protection versus your rights
20. Open-source Software versus Closed-source Software Ethical ramifications and impact on intellectual property law
21. Creative Commons Licenses How do they work and what are the legal and ethical impacts and concerns?
22. Universal ID Card. What is the general position of the U.S. government about issuing each individual a unique ID Card? Which individual U.S. government agencies have already provided a unique ID Card? What steps have been taken to include individual ID information electronically in passports? How is privacy and security provided?
23. Federal and State Law Enforcement’s Role to enforce computer-based crime.
Module 1: Introduction to Ethical Theories
Introduction to Ethical Theories
The concepts of ethics , character, right and wrong, and good and evil have captivated humankind since we began to live in groups, communicate, and pass judgment on each other. The morality of our actions is based on motivation, group rules and norms, and the end result. The difficult questions of ethics and information technology (IT) may not have been considered by previous generations, but what is good, evil, right, and wrong in human behavior certainly has been. With these historical foundations and systematic analyses of present-day and future IT challenges, we are equipped for both the varied ethical battles we will face and the ethical successes we desire.
Although most of you will be called upon to practice applied ethics in typical business situations, you’ll find that the foundation for such application is a basic understanding of fundamental ethical theories. These ethical theories include the work of ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. This module introduces the widely accepted core ethical philosophies, which will serve to provide you with a basic understanding of ethical thought. With this knowledge, you can begin to relate these theoretical frameworks to practical ethical applications in today’s IT environment.
Let’s start with a fundamental question: “Why be ethical and moral ?” At the most existential level, it may not matter. But we don’t live our lives in a vacuum—we live our lives with our friends, relatives, acquaintances, co-workers, strangers, and fellow wanderers. To be ethical and moral allows us to be counted upon by others and to be better than we would otherwise be. This, in turn, engenders trust and allows us to have productive relationships with other people and in society. Our ethical system, supported by critical thinking skills, is what enables us to make distinctions between what is good, bad, right, or wrong.
An individual’s ethical system is based upon his or her personal values and beliefs as they relate to what is important and is, therefore, highly individualized. Values are things that are important to us. “Values can be categorized into three areas: Moral (fairness, truth, justice, love, happiness), Pragmatic (efficiency, thrift, health, variety, patience) and Aesthetic (attractive, soft, cold, square)” (Navran, n.d.). Moral values influence our ethical system. These values may or may not be supported by individual beliefs. For example, a person is faced with a decision—he borrowed a friend’s car and accidentally backed into a tree stump, denting the fender—should he confess or make up a story about how it happened when the car was parked? If he had a personal value of honesty, he would decide not to lie to his friend. Or, he could have a strong belief that lying is wrong because it shows disrespect for another person and, therefore, he would tell the truth. In either case, the ethical decision making was influenced by his system of values or beliefs. These may come from family, culture, experience, education, and so on.
This discussion brings us to the term ethics. Frank Navran, principal consultant with the Ethics Resource Center (ERC), defines ethics as “the study of what we understand to be good and right behavior and how people make those judgments” (n.d.). Behavior that is consistent with one’s moral values would be considered ethical behavior. Actions that are inconsistent with one’s view of right, just, and good are considered unethical behavior. However, it is important to note that determining what is ethical is not just an individual decision—it also is determined societally.
We will witness this larger social dimension in this course, which is designed to provide you with an understanding of the specific ethical issues that have arisen as information technology has evolved over the last few decades. The very changes that enhanced technology causes in society also create ethical issues and dilemmas not previously encountered. The lack of precedent in many areas, combined with the ease of potentially operating outside of ethical paradigms, pose significant challenges to end users, IT analysts, programmers, technicians, and managers of information systems. We must be prepared logically and scientifically to understand ethics and to practice using ethical guidelines in order to achieve good and right solutions and to plan courses of action in times of change and uncertainty.
You can see from the benefits discussed above that knowledge, respect for, and a deeper understanding of norms and laws and their source—ethics and morals—is extremely useful. Ethical thought and theories are tools to facilitate our ethical decision-making process. They can provide the foundation on which to build a great company, or to become a better and more productive employee, a better neighbor, and a better person. Still, some professionals may wonder “Why study ethics?” Robert Hartley, author of Business Ethics: Violations of the Public Trust (Hartley, 1993, pp. 322–324) closes his book with four insights, which speak directly to this question for business and IT professionals. They are:
· The modern era is one of caveat vendidor, “Let the seller beware.” For IT managers, this is an important reason to understand and practice ethics.
· In business (and in life), adversity is not forever. But Hartley points out that when business problems are handled unethically, the adversity becomes a permanent flaw and results in company, organization, and individual failure.
· Trusting relationships (with customers, employees, and suppliers) are critical keys to success. Ethical behavior is part and parcel of building and maintaining the trust relationship, and hence business success.
· One person can make a difference. This difference may be for good or evil, but one person equipped with the understanding of ethical decision-making, either by acting on it or simply articulating it to others, changes history. This sometimes takes courage or steadfastness—qualities that spring from basic ethical confidence.
In the world of information technology today and in the future, the application of these ethical theories to day-to-day and strategic decision making is particularly relevant. The ability to garner personal, corporate, and governmental information and to disseminate this data in thousands of applications with various configurations and components brings significant responsibilities to ensure the privacy, accuracy, and integrity of such information. The drive to collect and distribute data at increasing volume and speed, whether for competitive advantage in the marketplace or homeland security cannot overshadow the IT manager’s responsibility to provide appropriate controls, processes, and procedures to protect individual and organizational rights.
Let’s begin building our understanding of several predominant ethical theories. Ethical theories typically begin with the premise that what is being evaluated is good or bad, right or wrong. Theorists seek to examine either the basic nature of the act or the results the act brings about. As Deborah Johnson (2001, p. 29) states in Computer Ethics, philosophical ethics is normative (explaining how things should be, not how they are at any given moment) and ethical theories are prescriptive (prescribing the “desired” behavior). Frameworks for ethical analysis aim to shape or guide the most beneficial outcome or behavior. There are two main categories of normative ethical theories: teleology and deontology . Telos refers to end and deon refers to that which is obligatory. These theories address the fundamental question of whether the “means justify the end” or the “end justifies the means.” Deontological ethical systems focus on the principle of the matter (the means), not the end result. In contrast, teleological ethical systems address the resulting consequences of an action (the ends).
Teleological theories focus on maximizing the goodness of the cumulative end result of a decision or action. In determining action, one considers the good of the end result before the immediate rightness of the action itself. These theories focus on consequences of an action or decision and are often referred to as consequentialism. Teleological theories include utilitarianism, ethical egoism, and common good ethics.
Utilitarianism
The most prevalent example of a teleological theory is utilitarianism , often associated with the writings of John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. Utilitarianism looks for the greatest good for the greatest number of people, including oneself. Individual rights and entitlements are subservient to the general welfare. There are two main subtypes: act-utilitarianism (for which the rules are more like rules-of-thumb/guidelines) and rule-utilitarianism (for which the rules are more tightly defined and critical). Utilitarianism requires consideration of actions that generate the best overall consequences for all parties involved. This entails:
· cost/benefit analysis
· determination of the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number
· identifying the action that will maximize benefits for the greatest number of stakeholders of the organization
This quote explains a bit more: “The fathers of utilitarianism thought of it principally as a system of social and political decision, as offering a criterion and basis of judgment for legislators and administrators” (Williams, 1993, p. 135). Utilitarianism is geared to administrative and organizational decision-making, given that in complex systems or relationships, a single individual may not have the resources to determine the overall benefit to the total number of people affected by the decisions.
Ethical Egoism and Altruism
Egoism is maximizing your own benefits and minimizing harm to yourself. This is sometimes thought of as behavioral Darwinism , and clearly it guides decision-making with an eye toward basic survival. Although different aspects of this theory debate whether all human behavior is self-serving or should be self-serving, it is impossible to know with certainty what internally motivates an individual.
Altruism determines decisions and actions based on the interests of others, the perceived maximized good for others, often at one’s own expense or in a way directly opposed to the egoist alternative.
Further debate can be found over whether ethical egoism also incorporates an element of altruism. For example, a network engineer working for a vendor recommends to a client a network security installation that generates a substantial commission for the engineer. However, this installation also provides maximum network security for the benefit of the client. Is this self-serving or altruistic? The inability to distinguish pure motives in most practical applications, along with the inherent conflict resulting from competing self-interests, leads to an unsurprising result: these theories are not typically used in generally accepted frameworks for ethical decision-making.
The Common Good
The common-good approach comes from the teachings and writings of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Rawls. It is based on an assumption that within our society, certain general conditions are equally advantageous to all and should therefore be maximized. These conditions include health care, safety, peace, justice, and the environment. This is different from utilitarianism in that utilitarianism strives for the maximum good for the most (but not necessarily all) people. The common-good approach sets aside only those conditions that apply to all.
All teleological theories focus on the end result: what’s best for me, what’s best for you, or what’s best for some or all of us. One important factor in using teleological frameworks as a guide to action is that you need to be able to understand accurately and project the end result for the variety of affected groups. For egoism and altruism, this is perhaps not difficult. For larger, more remote, and less-well-understood groups, teleological theories can lead to acts that in turn become the bricks paving the road of good intentions. However, in information technology, where many people are affected either positively or negatively by the acts of a few, teleological theories can be very helpful.
Deontology (Rights and Duties)
Deontological theories focus on defining the right action independently of and prior to considerations of the goodness or badness of the outcomes. The prefix deon refers to duty or obligation—one acts because one is bound by honor or training to act in the right manner, regardless of the outcome. Deontological theories include those that focus on protection of universal rights and execution of universal duties, as well as those that protect less universal rights and more specific duties. These rights and duties are usually learned and are often codified in some traditional way. For example, theologism is a deontological theory based on the Ten Commandments. Boy Scouts have a code that is intended as a guide to the rights of others and personal duties. Deontology uses one’s duty as the guide to action, regardless of the end results.
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Deontological theories are most often associated with Immanuel Kant and his categorical imperative. Kant’s famous categorical imperative takes two forms:
1. You ought never act in any way unless that way or act can be made into a universal maxim (i.e., your act may be universalized for all people), and
2. Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, always as an end and never only as a means.
Kant’s duty-based approach might directly conflict with teleological approaches, for in a utilitarian solution, individuals could very easily serve as the means for other ends. Duty-based ethical analysis leads a manager to consider the following questions:
1. What if everyone did what I’m about to do? What kind of world would this be? Can I universalize the course of action I am considering?
2. Does this course of action violate any basic ethical duties?
3. Are there alternatives that better conform to these duties? If each alternative seems to violate one duty or another, which is the stronger duty?
Duty-Based Ethics (Pluralism)
A duty-based approach to ethics focuses on the universally recognized duties that we are morally compelled to do. There are several “duties” that are recognized by most cultures as being binding and self-evident. These duties include being honest, being fair, making reparations, working toward self-improvement, and not hurting others. A duty-based approach would put these obligations ahead of the end result, regardless of what it may be. Pluralism includes the care-based ethical approach based simply on the Golden Rule, “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
Rights-Based Ethics (Contractarianism)
A rights-based approach to ethics has its roots in the social contract philosophies of Rousseau, Hobbes, and John Locke. These ideas are also at the foundation of the United States form of government and history, and rights (whether natural or granted by governments) are intensely held American ideological values. Because the global information technology leadership is fundamentally an American creation, contractarian philosophical approaches in IT are widely used, even if we don’t think about it overtly. When invoking a rights-based or contractarian framework, managers must carefully consider the rights of affected parties:
· Which action or policy best upholds the human rights of the individuals involved?
· Do any alternatives under consideration violate their fundamental human rights (i.e., liberty, privacy, and so on)?
· Do any alternatives under consideration violate their institutional or legal rights (e.g., rights derived from a contract or other institutional arrangement)?
Fairness and Justice
The fairness-and-justice approach is based on the teachings of Aristotle. It is quite simple: equals should be treated equally. Favoritism, a situation where some benefit for no justifiable reason, is unethical. Discrimination, a situation where a burden is imposed on some who are not relevantly different from the others, is also unethical. This approach is deontological because it simply identifies a right and a duty, and does not specifically consider the end result.
Virtue Ethics
Whereas teleological theories focus on results or consequences and deontological theories relate to rights and duties, the virtue ethics approach attributes ethics to personal attitudes or character traits and encourages all to develop to their highest potential. This theory includes the virtues themselves: “motives and moral character, moral education, moral wisdom or discernment, friendship and family relationships, a deep concept of happiness, the role of emotions in one’s moral life and the fundamentally important questions of what sort of person I should be and how I should live my life” (Hursthouse, 2003). When faced with an ethical dilemma, a virtue ethicist would focus on the character traits of honesty, generosity, or compassion, for example, rather than consequences or rules. Virtue ethics is included in the area of what is referred to as normative ethics.
The table below helps to organize the various ethical theories for you. Note that these theories have evolved over time, and there are some overlapping ideas and theorists.
| Major Ethical Theories | |||
| Theory | Key Players | Explanation | |
| Utilitarianism | John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham | Seeks the greatest good for the greatest number of people; wants to make the world a better place | |
| Egoism | Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes | Seeks to maximize one’s individual benefit and minimize harm to self; key idea: survival. | |
| Altruism | Auguste Comte | Seeks to maximize decisions and actions based on interests of others, even if at own individual expense; opposite of egoism. | |
| Common Good | Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and Rawls | Based on the assumption that within society, we are all pursuing common goals and values. | |
| Duty-Based or Pluralism | Immanuel Kant | Based on Kant’s categorical imperative: all acts can be made into a universal maximum; act always as an end (not a means) | |
| Rights-Based (Contractarianism) | Rousseau, Hobbes, and John Locke | Seeks action or policy that best upholds the human rights of individuals involved (foundation for United States form of government). | |
| Fairness and Justice Approach | Aristotle | Equals should be treated equally; favoritism and discrimination are unethical. | |
| Virtue | Predominantly influenced by Plato and Artistotle | Seeks to encourage all to develop to their highest potential |
What is computer ethics? This term can be used in a variety of ways. It may refer to applying traditional ethical theories to IT situations, or it may entail the broader application that we see with the prevalence of ethical codes, standards of conduct, and new areas of computer law and policy. There also is an increasing interest in how sociology and psychology relate to computing. Scholars generally agree that the study of computer ethics began with Norbert Wiener, an MIT professor who worked during World War II to develop an anti-aircraft cannon. His work in the 1940s prompted Wiener and his associates to create a new field of study that Wiener labeled cybernetics . Their work fostered the development of several ethical conclusions regarding the potential implications of this type of advanced technology. Wiener published his book, The Human Use of Human Beings, in 1950. Although the term computer ethics was not used by Wiener and it was decades later that the term came into general use, his work certainly laid the foundation for future study and analysis. His book became a cornerstone for the study of computer ethics. In it, Wiener talks about the purpose of human life and the four principles of justice, but he also offers discussion, application, and examples of what would come to be recognized as computer ethics. (Bynum, 2001)
It wasn’t until the 1970s that computer ethics began to garner interest. Walter Maner, a university professor then at Old Dominion University, offered a course in computer ethics to examine the ethical problems created, exacerbated, or changed due to computer technology (Bynum, 2001). Through the 70s and 80s, interest increased in this area, and in 1985, Deborah Johnson (previously referenced in this module) authored the first textbook on the subject, Computer Ethics. Both Maner and Johnson advocated the application of concepts from the ethical theories of utilitarianism and Kantianism. However, in 1985, James Moor published a broader definition of computer ethics in his article “What is Computer Ethics?” He states: “computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology” (Moor, 1985, p. 266). His definition was in line with several frameworks for ethical problem-solving rather than the specific application of any philosopher’s theory. With the potentially limitless ability of computing comes a dynamic, evolutionary flow of related ethical dilemmas. Moor indicated that as computer technology became more entwined with people and their everyday activities, the ethical challenges would become more difficult to conceptualize and do not lend themselves to the development of a static set of rules (Moor, 1985).
Throughout the 1990s and continuing into the new millennium, we’ve seen tremendous developments in the field of technology. Not surprisingly, with these developments, we’ve seen the wide-spread adoption of computers to almost every application imaginable, including the affordability and prevalence of computers in homes and businesses. Professional associations have adopted codes of conduct for their members, organizations have developed ethical codes and standards of conduct for employees, and the IT field has focused increased efforts in addressing the ethical situations and challenges that have unfolded.
In the following modules, we will explore how to apply these traditional theories and analysis and problem-solving frameworks to effectively understand and address ethical challenges in the information age.
References
Bynum, T. (2001).Computer ethics: Basic concepts and historical overview. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Winter 2001 ed.). Retrieved July 7, 2005, from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2001/entries/ethics-computer/
Hartley, R. F. (1993). Business ethics: Violations of the public trust. New York: John Wiley.
Hursthouse, R. (2003). Virtue ethics. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2003 ed.). Retrieved July 2, 2005, from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2003/entries/ethics-virtue/
Johnson, D. G. (2001). Computer ethics (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kidder, R. M. (1995). How good people make tough choices: Resolving the dilemmas of ethical living. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Narvan, F. Ask the expert: What is the difference between ethics, morals and values? The Ethics Resource Center. Retrieved June 19, 2005, from http://www.ethics.org/ask_e4.html
Williams, B. (1993). A critique of utilitarianism. In J.J.C. Smart & B. Williams (Eds.), Utilitarianism: For and against. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Module 2: Methods of Ethical Analysis
Application of Ethical Theories
In module 1, we acquired a foundation in classical ethical theories. In this module, we will learn how to apply this knowledge to ethical challenges in today’s business world and, more specifically, to the area of information technology.
As we learned in module 1, the main traditional ethical theories tend to be either rule-based (deontological) or consequentialist (teleological). Both types of theories provide a framework for deciding whether actions are right, depending upon the consequences that result from the action (consequentialist) or whether the action follows the relevant rules for ethical behavior (deontological). Traditional ethical theories were intended to apply universally to ethical dilemmas and obviously didn’t factor in issues such as marketplace competition, stockholders, and today’s ever-changing world of information technology. Today’s IT manager needs to be able to address ethical issues and to find resolutions in concrete business terms rather than engage in a philosophical ethical debate. However, we can use those theories to guide our ethical decision-making process.
In addition to the ethical theories already presented, business ethics attempts to take traditional ethics and apply them practically to a business context. The normative theories of business ethics (NTBE), introduced to the information systems community in large part by Smith and Hasnas, provide three basic approaches to ethical problems: stockholder, stakeholder, and social contract theories (Smith, 2002). In this section, we will introduce those theories as well as make connections to classical theory.
Normative Theories of Business Ethics
As its name indicates, the stockholder theory of NTBE focuses on making ethical decisions that benefit stockholders. According to this theory, because stockholders have invested in the company for their own profit, actions taken by the company should be focused on benefiting the bottom line. A manager or employee has a responsibility to use corporate resources in ways that do not take away from the stockholders’ benefits. Stockholder theory instructs managers to act within legal constraints. It does not instruct or encourage managers to ignore ethical constraints.
Stakeholder theory expands a manager’s responsibility beyond the stockholders to include anyone with an interest in the firm. This could include employees, customers, stockholders, and potentially even competitors. Given that there is a potential conflict among the interests of the various stakeholders, the manager’s challenge is to balance those interests and to provide the best possible solution that does not substantially infringe on any individual stakeholder group.
According to social contract theory, businesses have ethical obligations to benefit society by fulfilling customer and employee interests within the generally accepted rules or codes. If there were a hypothetical contract between society and a group of individuals who wished to establish a business, what would the latter need from society—and what would society expect in return? The terms of this hypothetical contract would outline both those sets of expectations. Therefore, in giving the group of individuals rights to act as an organization, use resources, and hire employees, a society would have expectations related to fair treatment of employees, appropriate uses of natural resources, and so on. (Smith, 2002).
Figure 2.1 illustrates the various links between business ethics and traditional ethical theories to show the continuing relevance of the latter. To find out more about the connections between NTBE and traditional ethics, click on the titles under Normative Theories of Business Ethics and read the information contained in the pop-up.
Figure 2.1 Linkages between Traditional Ethical and Business Ethics Frameworks
(Adapted from Smith, H. J. (2002). Ethics and Information Systems: Resolving the Quandaries. The DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems (Summer 2002), p. 5.)
As you can see from the dotted lines in figure 2.1, the modern and traditional elements do have connections and relationships despite their various origins and applications. As you become more familiar with each of these areas, the similarities and differences will become clearer.
Now that you’ve had some practice in working through an ethical decision-making scenario, let’s look at various structured approaches for addressing such situations. There are several ways to systematically approach an ethical dilemma. Each has merits, and each will result in an ethical decision if straightforwardly and honestly applied. As you will see, the various approaches are similar yet have somewhat different slants.
Reynolds Seven-Step Approach
George Reynolds uses a seven-step ethical decision-making approach that is summarized in table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Reynolds’ Seven-Step Ethical Decision-Making Approach
| Steps | Description |
| 1. Get the facts | Before proceeding, ensure that you have assembled the relevant facts regarding the ethical issue that you’re addressing. |
| 2. Identify the stakeholders | Identify who is impacted by this situation and its subsequent resolution. Define what their role is as well as what would be the best-case outcome for each stakeholder group. |
| 3. Consider the consequences | What are the benefits and/or harm that could come from your decision to you individually, the stakeholders, and the organization as a whole? |
| 4. Evaluate the various guidelines, policies, and principles | First look to any applicable laws, then to any existing corporate policies, ethical codes, and individual principles. Look at the application of traditional ethical theories as well as Normative Theories of Business Ethics. |
| 5. Develop and evaluate options | You may identify several possible solutions and may find it useful to support each with key principles that support the recommendation. Your chosen solution should be ethically defendable and, at the same time, meet the stakeholder and organizational needs and obligations. |
| 6. Review your decision | Review your decision in relationship to your personal and the organization’s values. Would others see this as a good and right decision? |
| 7. Evaluate the results | Did the final outcome achieve the desired results? This is an important step to help develop and increase your decision-making abilities. |
(Adapted from Reynolds, G. W. (2003). Ethics in Information Technology, pp.115-118.)
Kidder’s Nine-Steps
In his book How Good People Make Tough Choices, Rushworth Kidder presents a similar process; however, he defines four dilemmas by which various moral issues could be categorized (Kidder, 1995, p.18).
· Truth versus loyalty
· Individual versus community
· Short-term versus long-term
· Justice versus mercy
Kidder’s Nine-Steps are:
1. Recognize that there is a moral issue.
2. Determine the actor (whose moral issue is it?).
3. Gather the relevant facts.
4. Test for right-versus-wrong issues.
5. Test for right-versus-right paradigms (what sort of dilemma is this?).
6. Apply the resolution principles (ends-based, rule-based, or care-based).
7. Investigate the “trilemma” options (look for common ground or compromise).
8. Make the decision.
9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. (Kidder, 1995, p. 183-187)
Kidder places “recognize that there is a moral issue” as the first step in the analysis for two reasons. First, it helps to ensure that issues receive the attention required. Secondly, it encourages a person to adequately address moral questions and distinguish moral issues from other situations involving social conventions or contradictory values that could be “economic, technological, or aesthetic” rather than moral issues (Kidder, 1995, p. 183). After evaluating for legal compliance, Kidder advocates some common sense checks such as “How would you feel if what you are about to do showed up tomorrow morning on the front pages of the nation’s newspapers?” Then, he evaluates the issue to identify which of the four dilemmas listed above apply to gain better clarity around the dilemma, identifying the conflict at hand. (Kidder, 1995, p. 184).
Spinello’s Seven-Step Process
Richard Spinello provides a similar seven-step process for ethical analysis designed specifically for IT professionals, and it is geared toward development of public policy and law. His sixth step entails adding an original normative conclusion: what should happen? His seventh step includes the questions: “What are the public-policy implications of this case and your normative recommendations? Should the recommended behavior be prescribed through policies and laws?” This approach can be useful for IT organizations seeking to better structure and define policies and procedures (Spinello, 1997, p. 45).
Here are all Seven-Steps:
1. Identify and formulate the basic ethical issues in each case. Also, consider legal issues and whether ethical and legal issues are in conflict.
2. What are your first impressions, your moral intuition about the problem?
3. Consult appropriate formal guidelines, the ethical and/or professional codes.
4. Analyze the issues from the viewpoint of one or more of the three ethical frameworks.
5. Do the theories lead to a single solution, or do they offer competing alternatives? If competing, which principle or avenue of reasoning should take precedence?
6. What is your normative conclusion—what should happen?
7. What are the public-policy implications of this case and your normative recommendations? Should the recommended behavior be prescribed through policies and laws?
Many common business activities, such as process improvement, problem solving, and project management, have defined approaches to support their process. To effectively make ethical decisions, it also is extremely useful to have a structure to approach the problem. As a beginning step, have an understanding of the available methodologies for approaching the issue in an objective manner. Eventually, skill and experience in applying the process will enable you to explain your process and subsequent recommendations to other stakeholders.
One of the challenges for those working in IT is the lack of precedence in some situations. The more you can apply a well-grounded methodology when faced with a new or ambiguous ethical dilemma, the greater the likelihood that you can come to an ethical solution that will effectively balance individual, organizational, and/or social concerns with good business.
Ultimately, you need to use an analytical approach that works for you and for your organization. It may be one of the approaches we’ve discussed, or it may be a hybrid. Individual values will also drive the approach. In addition to these theories, corporations and professional associations have attempted to provide guidance through corporate codes of conduct or professional codes of ethics. Corporate codes of conduct typically are intended to apply to all employees and, therefore, do not specifically address IT issues. However, some IT organizations establish additional policies related to software use and so on. Professional associations, such as the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), have established code of ethics for its members to help guide their activities.
Many of the ethical issues that arise within the field of information technology fall into similar areas. Richard Mason, a professor in Management Information Systems, has identified four ethical areas in the Information Age that have been widely accepted as key issues (Mason, 1986):
· Privacy
· Accuracy
· Property
· Accessibility
References
Barquin, R. C. (1992). Ten commandments of computer ethics. Retrieved August 19, 2005, from http://www.brook.edu/its/cei/overview/Ten_Commandments_of_Computer_Ethics.htm
Kidder, R. M. (1995). How good people make tough choices: Resolving the dilemmas of ethical living. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Mason, R. O. (1986). Four ethical issues of the information age. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 10, (1), 3.
Reynolds, G. W. (2003). Ethics in information technology. Boston: Thomson Learning, Inc.
Smith, H. J. (2002). Ethics and information systems: Resolving the quandaries. Database for Advances in Information Systems, 33, (3).
Spinello, R. A. (1997).Case studies in information and computer ethics. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
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